Chapters 17 through 20--The European Moment in World History (1750-1914)

Once again, I read with interest these four chapters. While I have heard about the French Revolution, until today, I did not know much about the circumstances surrounding it. The French Revolution took place between 1789-1815, a total of 26 years. It is amazing that, once again, another government, this time the French government, was facing bankruptcy. At the time, there were three classes in France: Two percent of the population was represented by the nobility and the clergy and represented the first two Estates General in the French organization; 98% represented the balance of the population, who represented the Third Estate and eventually declared themselves the National Assembly. King Louis XVI needed to increase taxes to offset the current financial situation. He sought to change the current tax system to make it more equitable; however, that idea was opposed by privileged class (sound familiar?). When the Estates General (all three estates) convened in 1789, the national Assembly separated themselves from the Estates General and launched the French Revolution. Ultimately, King Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette were executed.

The French Revolution was motivated by social conflicts that included unfair taxation, the distinct differences in the classes and the privileges enjoyed by the wealthy, the urban poor who suffered from unemployment, oppression and inflation. Strayer indicates that the French Revolution was much more violent than the American Revolution (p. 505). The Revolution spread through conquest under the military leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte who ruled from 1799-1814. Strayer says that he kept the revolution’s emphasis on social equality, but that equality did not necessarily include liberty (p. 507). He was credited with ending feudalism, proclaiming equal rights and religious toleration, codifying the laws, and justifying or rationalizing government administration. He also was credited with creating the continent’s largest empire since the Roman Empire (Strayer, p. 507).

The other revolution that I was completely unfamiliar with was the Haitian Revolution, which took place between the years of 1791-1804. Interestingly, the French Caribbean colony, originally called Saint Domingue and later renamed Haiti, was considered the richest colony in the world. The vast majority of its population was made up of slaves, who revolted in 1971. The Haitian Revolution was the only successful slave revolt in world history (Strayer, p. 509). It was interesting to note that Napoleon’s defeat in Haiti convinced him to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

As I read through these two sections, I continue to see common threads in our world history’s revolutions: The oppression of peoples, the benefits of the privileged, the desire for wealth, social inequalities, unfair taxation, the need to govern and control, just to name a few. One would think that we would learn from our past experiences, but we just seem to continue to make the same mistakes. Additionally, I was not aware that the issue of racial and gender equality was so pervasive throughout our history.

I wonder why it was that we humans transitioned from an egalitarian society to one that was patriarchal instead. Clearly women have been an integral part of society and man’s partner since the beginning of time. I read with interest the African case study regarding women and colonial economy and the division of labor between men and women. Once again finding themselves subordinate to men, women during pre-colonial times had extremely difficult responsibilities. Included in their agricultural responsibilities, they had to plan, weed, harvest and may have been assigned to their own fields to work. They also were responsible for child rearing, food preparation, and many were involved in local trading activity. As the demands of the colonial economies grew, women had even more responsibilities, as cash-crop agriculture became more important and more profitable. I cannot imagine raising a family, being responsible for all the planting, weeding, and harvesting of my assigned field, in addition to being able to trade my harvested or produced goods, AND doing all of this without any male assistance and in the African heat!!! I much prefer an egalitarian society where gender differences are recognized and respected.

Having now a better understanding global colonial empires, it seems to me that colonization was a modern form of slavery. It included required unpaid labor in many instances, and in some places, such as French Africa, the natives were legally obligated to work ten to twelve days a year under “statute labor” (Strayer, p.599). Similar cruelties seen during the era of slavery were seen in colonization in many areas. It was extremely difficult for me to read about the cruelties of forced labor that occurred in the early 20th century in the Congo under Leopold II of Belgium. Rubber for tires and bicycles was in demand and villagers of the Congo were forced to collect rubber. If they failed in their collection or if their collection was inadequate, soldiers would kill them or maim them. This is just another example of man’s inhumanity to man. Again, one would think that we would have moved beyond this…

The Early Modern World, Chapters 14 through 16

Once again, these chapters provided so much interesting historical information.  I can remember learning about the Aztecs, Mayans, and the Inca civilizations in grade school.  I also remember learning about Christopher Columbus, his incredible discovery of America, the subsequent voyages of other explorers.  However, I do not remember being taught about the abuse, exploitation and the destruction of the cultures of the native peoples.  It is no wonder that many Native Americans objected to any celebration of the 500^th anniversary of Columbus’s arrival to the Americas (Strayer p 403). 

I have mixed feelings regarding Columbus.  As an Italian American, I am proud of Columbus’ accomplishments.  He had the courage to sail on unchartered waters and to explore unknown lands with tremendous risk to his own life and the life of his crew.  I learned for this first time through this reading that the purpose of Columbus’ voyage in 1492 was to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean in the hopes of arriving somewhere in the East.  Never realizing that he had made a mistake, I had always thought that he purposely had sailed to “discover America.”  Nonetheless, there is pride in knowing that it was an Italian explorer (albeit sailing for Spain) who “discovered the Americas.” 

Having said that, it is difficult for me to justify, understand, and condone the tremendous violent and aggressive behavior of our global past history when it comes to imperialism and expansionism for the sake of a deity, country, or individual.  It seems as this behavior has been pervasive throughout history.  I am inclined to believe that these are very strong human characteristics!!!  Are there circumstances that can defend the complete destruction and annihilation of another culture or another nation?  While the Spanish conquests were destructive enough to the peoples of the Americas, I can only imagine the obliteration that would have occurred if the Mongolian Empire, the Chinese Empire or the Turkish Empire would have arrived to the Americas first instead of Columbus.

It is equally difficult for me to understand the concept of slavery.  Strayer indicates that of all the commercial ties that linked the early modern global network of exchange, none had more profound or enduring human consequences than the Atlantic slave trade (453).  It was shocking to learn that over a 400-year period (mid-15^th to the mid-19^th century), the trading of humans involved the taking of 11 million people from Africa, shipping them across the Atlantic, and depositing them in Americas where their lifespans often were brief.  Additionally, approximately 1.8 million slaves died during the transatlantic crossing (453).  I was equally surprised to learn that the origin of the Atlantic slave trade began in the Mediterranean and with sugar production.  As an adult with grown children, my family is so very important to me.  I could not imagine having my husband or my children of any age captured, sold, beaten, branded and forced into labor in another country and culture thousands of miles away. 

In keeping with this discussion on slavery, my naiveté shows.  I did not realize how pervasive slavery was throughout our global history and throughout so many civilizations—not just the Greeks, Romans and Americans!!!  It had been a long-established tradition in all of the First Civilizations.  Likewise, virtually all subsequent civilizations—in the Americas (including South America), Africa, and Eurasia—practiced some form of slavery (Strayer 165).   It disturbs me that the United States constantly is criticized for its slave history.  Without a doubt, slavery should not have been allowed in this nation, and it was a terrible episode in our nation’s history.  Today, our nation continues to move forward in recognizing the rights of all peoples, regardless of race, creed, gender, religion, or place of origin, .  Notwithstanding the inhumanity of slavery, should I, as an American, be criticized for our nation’s participation in slavery, I certainly shall be better educated to respond.  However, no response, in my humble opinion, justifies the ownership of one individual over another, no matter where the nation!

Interesting to Note

Initially, Slavic-speaking peoples from the Black Sea region furnished the slaves for Mediterranean plantations, so much so that “Slav” became the basis for the word “slave” in many European languages (Strayer 453). 

Mulatto—Peoples of Portuguese and African descent

Mestizo—Peoples of Spanish and Indian descent

Creoles—Spanish people born in the Americas (as opposed to being born in Spain)

While I am not sure that I agree, Strayer indicates that Africans did not generally sell their own people into slavery.  He indicates that those individuals who were captured and sold normally either were considered outsiders or vulnerable people who lacked the protection from an established African community (455).  Really?  I find that difficult to believe—12.5 million Africans did not belong to any community?  Were they all prisoners of war, criminals, debtors, people who had been “pawned during times of difficulty?”

I never realized that sugar was such a tremendous commodity and found its history fascinating!  Arabs introduced large-scale sugar production into the Mediterranean.  The Europeans transferred sugar and its production to the Atlantic islands and the Americas.  Initially, the Portuguese on the Brazilian coast dominated the world sugar market, until the British, French, and Dutch in the Caribbean undid the monopoly.  Massive slave labor was used for sugar, and the Brazilians had hundreds of thousands of slaves!  It is not surprising that much of Brazilian and Caribbean society is of African descent!!

Silver trade was even more important than the spice trade in creating a global exchange network and eventually became central to world trade.  Most of world’s silver supply ended up in China (imagine that!). 

Chapter 16 was also interesting.  While I have taken two religion classes, I continue to appreciate all that I learn on religions.  I do believe that in order for us to successfully co-exist as a global society, we need to understand the religious traditions of our global cultures.  I read with interest the Protestant Reformation of the 16^th century.  I know understand that the Reformation pertains to any Christian religious tradition that rejects papal authority and some fundamental Roman Catholic doctrines, such as the recognition of the saints or the veneration of the Virgin Mary.   As I look at the word Protestant, in my mind I see the word protest.  I wonder if Protestant comes from the protests of those who did not agree with the findings of the Roman Catholic Church. 

Jesuits—Society of Jesus religious order

The section of Science and Enlightenment was very interesting.  Enlightenment thinkers believed that knowledge could transform human society.  Much of Enlightenment thought attacked established religions; hence, many religions feel threatened by Enlightenment.  It is interesting to note that science became the most widely desired product of European culture, while Japan and the Ottoman Empire were not too interested in these ideas until later. 

Chapters 11, 12 and 13

Much like the last three chapters, it would be difficult to study world history without learning about the history of Islam, the Mongol movement, and where the world was during the 15^th century that precipitated essentially today’s global society.

I recently took a class entitled Religions of the World, where I learned about the prophet Muhammad and the Islamic religion. I recall the professor provided us with a statistic that I found surprising:  more people are becoming Muslim today than they are Christian.  It was equally surprising to learn that it was the largest and most influential of the third-wave civilizations.  The statistic that Strayer provided was that in the year 2000, there were approximately 1.2 billion Muslims in the world, representing 22% of the world population (p 301).  I think that what individuals found attractive about the Islamic religion is that it membership was a matter of belief, rather than a matter of birth, as it is in most other religions.  The other thing that may be attractive is that Islam is practiced as part of one’s total life, with no separation between religion and state as in Christianity for example.  Perhaps we could have a class discussion regarding the comments pertaining to Muslims that Pope Benedict made shortly after his appointment to the papacy.  It seems that whatever earlier tolerance existed between the Christian and Islamic communities has eroded since those comments were made. 

I have a better understanding of the word jihad from reading this chapter, and, I think, a better understanding regarding the philosophy of Islam and its expansion.  With the war in Iraq, Pakistan, and Afghanistan against the Taliban and Al Queda, I found that journalists translated the word to mean “holy war.” However, Strayer’s definition of “struggle” makes more sense to me.   Strayer included a further explanation of the word by stating that in its lesser form, such as in the jihad of the sword, the Qur’an authorized an “armed struggle against the forces of unbelief and evil as a means of establishing Muslim rule…” (p 306).  While I am not convinced that Allah wanted Osama bin Laden and what I believe to be Muslim extremists to attack the United States on September 11, 2001, I do believe that Muslim extremists might view the United States as an evil empire replete with forces of unbelief.  Truth be told, I was not at all familiar with the Islamic religion and the Muslim philosophy.  I would venture to say that there are many people throughout the world that do not have a good understanding of the Islamic religion.  That being said, I still cannot condone the acts of September 11^th. 

Other Things that I Learned

Sunni Muslims—rightful political, military leaders chosen by the Islamic community.

Shia (Shite)—Religious Islamic group that believes that Muslim leaders should be the blood relatives/descendants of Muhammad.

Sufi—Islamic groups that seek to have a direct and personal or mystical experience with the religion by renouncing of the material world.

Sikhism—a combination of religious elements from both the Islamic and Hindu religions.

I always wanted to learn more regarding the Mongolian Empire.  I was unaware that the Mongols gave rise to the largest land-based empire in all human history.  It extended from the Pacifica coast (China) to Eastern Europe and undeniably brought what Strayer refers to as “networks of exchange and communication” between Europe, China, and the Islamic world in the 13^th century.  The Mongolian Empire was similar to other empires in its expansive militaristic philosophy; however, history indicates that they were a brutal people. Strayer explains that the devastation brought about by the Mongol conquest of Russian either matched or exceeded the devastation that inflicted during the Persian and Chinese conquests.   I found it very interesting that the Mongols, for the most part, seemed to retain their ethnicity.  They did not learn or become Chinese during their 70-year conquest of China, however, Mongols in Persia did convert to Islam. 

Taking into consideration the size of their empire and their frightening reputation, the Mongolian Empire ruled for such a short period of time (several centuries).  Strayer explained that their “cultural imprint was modest” (p 342).  They did not provide a new religion or a new civilization to the world.  Their largest contribution perhaps was in that they promoted international commerce as a source of tax revenue (imagine that!).  The empire collapsed, in Strayer’s opinion, due to a plague known as the Black Death, a deadly virus that was carried by rodents and transmitted by fleas.  This plague broke out in northeastern China in 1331, reached Europe by 1347 and devastated it, killing up to two-thirds of the European population.  With the tremendous decrease in population the volume of “global” trade was reduced and by 1350, the Mongol Empire was falling apart.  It was during the next 100 years that the Mongolian Empire lost its control of China, Persia and Russia, and the overland trade routes in Central Asia were closed for the most part. 

Chapter 13 introduced the world as it was known in the 15^th century.  During the 15^th century, both Columbus and Zheng He participated in oceanic voyages.  While I am very familiar with Christopher Columbus, I did not know anything about Zheng He and of China’s maritime abilities.  There was a tremendous difference between the Columbus’ and Zheng He’s ocean expeditions, especially in the size of the expedition.  Columbus made his world-changing expedition to the Americas in 1492 with three ships and a crew of approximately 90.  He’s expedition included hundreds of ships with a crew in the thousands, and his presence was seen in the Indian Ocean.  Europeans were seeking the wealth of Africa and Asia that included gold, spices, and silk, and were searching for peoples to convert to Christianity, while China found itself in a different position.  After Mongolian rule and healing under the Ming dynasty, China found itself in a position where it faced no equivalent power, needed no military allies in the Indian Ocean basin and essentially was self-sustained (p 375).  It had a powerful Chinese fleet, but did not seek to conquest or colonize, while Europeans did.  China stopped its voyages in1433 abruptly.  I can only wonder how our world would and could have been different had China chosen, instead, to continue with its oceanic voyages.

I truly enjoyed reading the Reflections section of this chapter and found that I agreed with Strayer’s thoughts. If China had chosen to go continue its oceanic voyages, would China have discovered the Americas first?  What if the Ottoman Empire, who lasted from the 14^th century to the early 20^th century and who was considered one of the greatest empires of the world, had continued its expansion of Islam at the expense of Christianity?  Would our world be 100% Islam?  (Unfortunately, I did not have time to discuss the Ottoman Empire, which is another empire that I found very interesting.  Perhaps we can have a discussion in class?  Another blog for another day?)

Another Interesting Thing that I Learned

There truly is a place called Timbuktu and it is located in Africa!!!

China and the World, Chapter 9

I truly am appreciating what it is I am learning about in this world history class.  I know that as a younger student, I was just not ready, or perhaps not that interested, in the past events of other nations.  Today, however, I am in a different place where I want to learn about the past of other civilizations and other nations to put in perspective where we are as a nation and where we are as a global partner.  Perhaps it is because I am more mature than many of my fellow students, but I recognize that in order for us to peacefully co- exist with our fellow nations around the world, we need to fully understand what has gone on before at all levels.  Perhaps, then, we stand a chance of survival globally. 

Of the three chapters assigned this week, I found the reading on China quite enlightening.  While I realize that China today is one of the super powers, I did not realize that it had such a significant history.  Our reading this week educates us regarding China’s history from 500 CE to 1500 CE and refers to China as a major player among the then third-wave civilizations.  Strayer indicates that China had a centered “world order” that was felt throughout most of eastern Asia, and its wealth and cosmopolitan culture attracted many of its neighbors.  The Tang and Song dynasties lasted for 1,000 years.  I was also surprised by its technological advances that included:  the invention of gunpowder circa 1000 CE; its iron industry that produced suits of armor, arrowheads, metal for coins, and tools; papermaking; salt production through solar evaporation that was found to be extremely useful in preservation of food stuffs; and, printing (which I thought had been invented by a European later in history).  I was equally surprised to learn that it staffed its bureaucratic form of government via an examination system; public agency recruitment in the State of California typically includes an examination system of some sort as well. 

China’s self-perception that it was superior over other cultures equally was a surprise.  They considered themselves the “middle kingdom,” the center of the world, and they felt that they were superior to all “barbarian” peoples from beyond its borders.  Their Chinese lifestyle advocated culture and education, was self-sufficient, and greatly contrasted to the primitive nomadic lifestyles of northern China where people lived in tents and rode horses and who “sought access to China’s wealth and wisdom” (Strayer, 249).  Interestingly, China was willing to allow access within its borders for two reasons:  1) China believed that all barbarians could become Chinese through assimilation; and 2) China was “radiating civilization” (Strayer, 249) and, in doing so, was inviting others to visit. 

This access to China came at a price, known as the Tribute System.  This system was a set of practices that required the non-Chinese visitors/authorities to not only acknowledge Chinese superiority, but to acknowledge their own subordinate position by “kowtowing” to the Chinese in a series of ritual bowings and quasi worship behavior.  The visitors then would present their tribute, their gifts, to the Chinese emperor.  In return for the visitors’ submission, the emperor would grant them permission to enter China and trade in their rich markets, and would then bestow upon them gifts that often were of more value than those the emperor himself received.  This tribute system enabled the Chinese to regulate their relationships with the northern nomads, as well as the peoples of the neighboring states of Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, Japan, and the European barbarians that traveled over water.  While this practice was successful most of the time, there were times when it worked in an opposite way.  When China was faced, for example, with nomadic tribes, such as the Xiongnu, that were able to interact with its empire on equal terms militarily and otherwise, it was in China’s best interest to negotiate with these groups by providing them with essentially a “reverse tribute.” So, China would provide these tribes with large quantities of annual “gifts” of wine, silk and grain.  While these “gifts” complied with the tribute system, they were, in fact, a payment to the tribes for not invading China and for any necessary protection.  It was interesting to note that some of these nomadic tribes did not want to conquer China; rather, they preferred this extortion.

I was unaware of the impact China had on its neighboring nations, Vietnam, Korea and Japan.  While China did conquer the area of Korea, the Korean states did emerge between the 4^th and 7^th centuries and resisted Chinese political control.  Korea was successful in maintaining its political independence while participating with China’s tribute system.  While Korea did accept much of the Chinese culture in the form of luxury goods, scholarship and religious influence, it maintained its own culture and separate political existence.  Vietnam’s experience with China was somewhat similar to Korea’s experience.  However, the cultural heartland in Vietnam’s Red River Valley was part of the Chinese state until 939 CE.  Vietnamese rules adopted the Chinese approach to government, and the elite remained deeply committed to the Chinese culture.  However, much of the Vietnamese culture remained in place, including its language, cockfighting, and its belief in greater roles for women.  Japan’s relationship with China was interesting in that Japan was neither invaded nor conquered by China.  Rather, Japan voluntarily and selectively borrowed much of China’s culture especially between the 7^th and 9^th centuries.  Japan created a bureaucratic state modeled on China, sent large-scale missions to China to learn, and elements of Chinese culture were seen in art, architecture, education, medicine, and Chinese Buddhism to some extent.  I know better understand why it is that China sometimes weighs in with its opinions on the various affairs of state for each of these nations. 

I found the practice of foot binding of young girls during the Tang dynasty very disturbing.  This practice involved tightly wrapping the feet of young girls, which resulted in the breaking of their foot bones and caused them great pain.  This was yet another example of patriarchal behavior specific to China to restore some of the Han dynasty restrictions on women of female submission and passivity.  Foot binding was associated with new images of female beauty and eroticism that emphasized a smaller, restrained and more delicate female.  It certainly resulted in keeping women homebound and uninvolved!  Strayer indicates that this practice lasted into the 20^th century, when it was eliminated by Communist and reformist governments.  I have a difficult time comprehending the philosophy behind patriarchal societies and the practice of treating women as inferior or subordinate beings.  Certainly, Chinese females could perform other essential functions other than concubines, entertainers, courtesans and prostitutes!  Perhaps this is a discussion for another blog!

China definitely is an up and coming world power, if it is not so already one!